Vivian means “likes bright and vivid colors.” And I do, including red, which was my mother’s favorite color. I doubt she was alone here, but in the United States, the top six colors nationally are blue, black, gray, pink, white and green. Why didn’t red make the list?
Perhaps it’s because, in the U.S., the color has so many negative associations. Red is used almost universally in stop signs, alarms, and warnings. It signals alertness and caution, often linked to fire, blood, and emergency.
Stop signs
Traffic lights
Fire Trucks
No entry
Flammable liquid
Biohazard
Warning signs are commonly red because it is associated with danger, is highly visible, and stands out against most backgrounds, ensuring it can be seen from a distance even in poor conditions like fog or smoke. Many poisonous animals have red markings. In humans, exposure to red increases heart rate, raises blood pressure, and heightens alertness.
Symbolism One Step Removed
Seeing red. It means being very angry, mad, furious, irate, or enraged. Some synonyms for this phrase include losing your temper, exploding, erupting, losing patience, becoming enraged, or flying into a rage.
What about the bullfighter’s red cape, encouraging the bull to attack? Bulls are actually color-blind, but I’d be pretty mad too if someone was shaking a cape in my face and trying to stab me!
Then there is red faced. Depending on context, it could mean embarrassment or anger, but neither is pleasant.
Red lined: deleted.
Being in the red = financial deficit.
But this color is rich with symbolism across cultures, emotions, and contexts. It symbolizes a range of powerful concepts including love, passion, energy, vitality.
Seeing Red Emotions
Energy and Vitality
It symbolizes life force, strength, and physical energy. Its vibrancy grabs attention and can stimulate excitement or action.
Passion and Love
Red is associated with love, desire, and romance. It’s the color of hearts, roses, and Valentine’s Day.
Power and Courage
Mounties on Parade
Think red-blooded. Also, historically, red has symbolized power, leadership, and bravery. Warriors and royalty often wore red to signify status and valor.
The color can also evoke feelings of anger, aggression, or intensity, reflecting the heat of strong emotions.
Seeing Red Around the World
In Hinduism, red is associated with Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and embodiment of beauty.
Indian Culture
In Indian culture, red symbolizes love, passion, power, fertility, prosperity, and marital bliss, often used in weddings, festivals, and religious ceremonies. Brides often wear red saris, representing love, prosperity, and new beginnings. Red is also used in religious ceremonies and festivals like Holi.
Chinese Culture
In Chinese culture, red is a symbol of good fortune, prosperity, happiness, and celebration, especially during festivals like Lunar New Year. It’s therefore prominent in weddings, festivals, and decorations, believed to ward off evil spirits.
American Traditions
Red is associated with Christmas (red berries, Santa’s suit) symbolizing warmth and festivity. Many opera houses have red seats to convey a sense of opulence. A red carpet also signifies especially formal occasions.
Red Square
Russian Beauty
The ancient Russian word for red and beauty are the same. Even today, Moscow’s Red Square (Красная площадь) would be more accurately translated as Beautiful Square.
African Traditions
In many African cultures, red beads or cloths symbolize life, health, and vitality, but can also represent danger or mourning depending on the context. The Ndembu in Central Africa associate red with life and health, so warriors and sick people wear red paint.
Seeing Red In Art
Red’s symbolism is woven through art, literature, and cultural traditions, carrying meanings that evoke deep emotions and ideas in viewers, readers, and participants—often reflecting the above.
Emotion and Drama
Artists use red to convey intense feelings—love, anger, passion, or violence. For example, in Renaissance paintings, red robes often signify power or sanctity (like in depictions of Christ or saints). Medieval painters often depicted martyrs in red clothing.
Focus and Contrast
Red draws the viewer’s eye, creating focal points or dramatic contrasts. Think of Henri Matisse’s bold use of red to energize his compositions.
The Lute, Henri Matisse (1943)
Symbol of Life and Death
Red can represent blood, vitality, or sacrifice. In Mexican Día de los Muertos art, red flowers symbolize the life force amid remembrance of death.
In Literature
Love and Desire
Red often symbolizes passionate love or temptation. Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet uses red imagery to underscore the intensity and tragedy of young love.
The Scarlet Letter, Hugues Merle (1681)
Violence and Danger
Red can signal bloodshed or conflict. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, the scarlet “A” is a mark of sin and shame but also of identity and resilience.
Rebellion and Revolution
Red is also linked to upheaval and change, as seen in George Orwell’s Animal Farm, where the red flag symbolizes revolution and political power.
Red’s symbolism is a powerful reminder of life’s intensity—from love and celebration to warning and sacrifice. It’s a color that speaks to human experience across time and place.
Sustainable Perspective on Red Symbolism
A more recent interpretation is that red’s connection to blood and fire reminds us of life’s fragility and the importance of protecting natural resources. It can inspire urgent action toward climate and social justice, symbolizing both warning and passionate commitment.
Bottom Line: The effect of red is—totally?—dependent on context and culture.
I hope and trust you all made it through Friday, February 13, without anything too dreadful happening. If so, take a deep breath and gird your loins for Friday the 13th in March and November. Forewarned is forearmed.
And to that end, people from ancient times to today have sought portents of the future.
Omens are signs or phenomena believed to predict or indicate future events, often carrying symbolic meaning. Throughout history and across cultures, people have interpreted omens as messages from the spiritual world, nature, or the universe. Many believe these signs can provide guidance in decisions or forewarning of good or bad outcomes.
Common Types of Omens and Their Meanings
Bird Omens
Birds appearing in certain ways or places can be omens, and there are a ton of them. For example, many see a black crow or raven as a bad omen, while a dove often symbolizes peace or good news.
Whatever you are doing when you hear the first cuckoo predicts your year. (And I always thought that was New Year’s Day.)
Carrying a wren’s feather will prevent you from drowning. (I’d tuck it into my life jacket.)
If the ravens leave the Tower of London, then the Crown and kingdom will fall. (It’s my understanding that even today, steps are taken to keep ravens there.)
Sudden changes like an unexpected storm or clear skies can be interpreted as omens of change or warning. Several weather omens have been scientifically validated over the years, including the following
Red Sky in Morning, Sailors Take Warning; Red Sky at Night, Sailors Delight
High pressure systems typically move from west to east, bringing unstable weather and trapping dust particles in the atmosphere, which causes a red sunset.
Though the number of pinecones does predict the harshness of the coming winter, you can use pine cones to predict weather in another way: watching as they open in sunny weather or close before wet weather.
Counting Lightning Flashes and Thunderclaps Can Tell You a Storm’s Distance
For every five seconds between lightning and thunder, the sound travels roughly a mile.
Seeing certain animals, like snakes or owls, can have specific cultural meanings.
“Aschermittwoch” (“Ash Wednesday”), by Thomas Theodore Heine, from German Simplicissimus illustrated satirical magazine, 1903
For example, a black cat in China means good luck! But a black cat in the United States has long been thought to be a bad animal omen, so much so that black cats are the least adopted cat in the shelters.
The meaning of a deer in your backyard varies but usually means spiritual change or renewal. However, seeing a white deer is a bad omen.
Nearly any albino animal is a bad omen. An exception: in contrast to the fear of white animals in the East, the birth of the White Buffalo was a good animal sign from the Great Spirit to the Cheyenne and Sioux tribes.
If a rabbit crosses your path from left to right this is bad luck; multiple rabbits in your yard is a sign of fertility.
A fox crossing your path is an increase in mental faculties—focus on learning and using your intelligence in tricky situations.
Seeing a bear could be a sign that’s time to protect your children and family from an invading illness or intruder; or, it may be time for you to dive into the world of herbalism.
When moles show up in Greece, they are bringing messages from the Underworld, from the goddesses of death and transformation, saying a time of great change is ahead.
Seeing a coyote (a trickster and a thief) is often a bad omen; the Navajo believed the coyote was associated with “evil magicians” or “witches.”
The appearance of an antelope means your ancestor have a message for you, according to the Plains Indians’ beliefs; the sight of an antelope is almost always a good animal sign.
Roosters crowing at the back door is a bad omen—yet another portend of death; however, if the rooster crows at your front door you will have visitors before sunset.
Everyday Signs—and Countersigns
Broken mirrors, spilling salt, and opening umbrellas indoors are common omens of misfortune, but not to worry! By keeping your wits about you (and knowing the correct protections), you may be able to avoid a calamity. Some people carry lucky charms for protection against everyday omens of bad luck.
If you spill salt, you can toss it into a fire or stove, pour wine into your lap, or throw it over your left shoulder to dispel the bad luck.
To avoid bad luck after breaking a mirror, you can spin around three times counterclockwise, bury the pieces at night, or throw salt over your left shoulder.
If you’ve mentioned a potential calamity, you might touch iron or knock on wood to dispel the jinx and prevent misfortune.
If some people must walk under a ladder, they say a small positive phrase to feel more secure—which can help psychologically.
To avoid bad luck if you spill wine, dab the spilled wine behind your ears, as this may transform bad luck into good luck.
Heavenly Omens in the Past
Celestial events such as eclipses, comets, etc., often carried deep symbolic weight, sometimes altering decisions or fueling legends. Famous omens have shaped history by influencing leaders, societies, and pivotal events. Here are a few examples from history.
The Eclipse Before the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE)
Omen: A solar eclipse occurred before Alexander the Great’s decisive battle against Darius III.
Meaning: Some soldiers feared bad luck, but Alexander used it to inspire his troops.
Outcome: Alexander won, expanding his empire dramatically.
The Soothsayer’s Warning to Julius Caesar (44 BCE)
Meaning: A Roman soothsayer warned Caesar to be cautious on March 15, 44 BCE.
Outcome: Caesar was assassinated on that very day, making this omen legendary as a symbol of fate and ignored warnings.
Even today, people—more or less seriously—tell themselves or others to beware the Ides of March. Although every month has an ides (the 15th of the month, according to Roman calendars), only March makes people think this way.
Interestingly, Suetonius wrote of another omen foretelling Caesar’s assassination. He claimed that a wren carrying a sprig of laurel flew into the Roman Senate on the 14th of March, but a frenzied crowd of other birds followed the wren and tore it to pieces.
Halley’s Comet and the Norman Conquest (1066)
Omen: Halley’s Comet appeared in the sky before the Battle of Hastings in 1066.
Meaning: Many saw the comet as a bad omen, signaling change and doom.
Omen: Londoners saw a total solar eclipse on August 2, 1133, as contemporary chroniclers recorded.
Meaning: William of Malmesbury said that “the sun on that day, at the sixth hour, shrouded his glorious face, as the poets say, in hideous darkness, agitating the hearts of men by an eclipse.” William saw the eclipse as a presage of the king’s death, saying “The providence of God, at that time, bore reference in a wonderful manner to human affairs: for instance, that he should embark, never to return alive.”
Outcome: King Henry I of England left for Normandy, which he also ruled. He died there in 1135, having never returned to England.
The Appearance of the “Blood Moon” Before the Fall of Constantinople (1453)
Omen: Astronomers saw a red lunar eclipse, called a Blood Moon, before the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople.
Meaning: Many interpreted it as a sign of impending disaster for the Byzantine Empire.
Outcome: The city fell, marking a major shift in history.
Columbus’s Bloody Moon (1504)
Omen: A red lunar eclipse. Columbus had with him a book of astronomical tables that predicted a lunar eclipse for February 29, 1504.
Meaning: Columbus claimed his God was angry with the natives of Jamaica, for denying Columbus’s crew food (which they had done because of months of thievery).
Outcome: The indigenous people pleaded with Columbus to restore the moon. He said he would intercede with God. The eclipse passed, and the supplies resumed.
These omens show how natural or mystical signs were woven into human history, often reflecting hope, fear, or destiny—and probably a dollop of coincidence. But they remind us how deeply humans seek meaning in the world around them. For more examples from history, read the Britannica article Nine Celestial Omens.
Bottom Line: The meaning of omens depends on context, culture, and one’s individual beliefs. But even non-believers are aware of many of these omens.
Chances are your thoughts went to food: onions as components of soups and stews, casseroles or sandwiches. (If you eat red meat, you might try a toasted English muffin with mustard, a sausage patty, and a slice of onion. It used to be a staple at Bob Evans, and they’ll still make it on request.) You might even think of creamed onions.
from Mother Earth’s Children, 1914
For a few of you, The Onion: America’s Finest News Source might come to mind. As far as I know, this is the only (non-cooking) publication named for a vegetable. It’s a print/online parallel to late night comedy shows.
But for most of us, onions are, essentially, food.
In this blog, I want to explore other aspects of onions: the health benefits of eating onions and the symbolism of onions, and miscellaneous helpful uses.
Medicine from the Onion
Medicinal onions: although we don’t usually think of them in this way, onions have numerous health benefits.
Onions Have Many Antioxidants
They contain quercetin, a powerful antioxidant with antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. They help protect cells from oxidative stress. Onions may reduce the risk of chronic conditions like heart disease and cancer, and support immune system regulation
Onions help Regulate Blood Sugar Levels
Flavonoids in onions help stabilize glucose levels. They may improve insulin sensitivity. Onions help prevent energy crashes and spikes throughout the day. They support better metabolic control.
Onions are a great source of potassium, which aids muscle function and hydration. They contain manganese to support connective tissue and bone health. Onions also help regulate metabolism and energy production, and contribute to maintaining fluid balance in the body.
Anti-Inflammatory Properties
In general, anti-inflammatories are good things. Quercetin works as a natural anti-inflammatory agent, which may ease symptoms of arthritis by reducing joint stiffness and pain. Also, they have the potential to support urinary health by reducing inflammation. Indeed, they aid in fighting any systemic inflammatory condition.
Onions May Help With Cancer
Researchers have linked the organosulfur compounds in onions to anti-cancer effects, associated with reduced risk of colorectal, ovarian, and laryngeal cancers. Being rich in antioxidants helps protect DNA from damage. Overall, onions support detoxification processes in the body.
Onions May Reduce Risks of Alzheimer’s Disease
Quercetin may help protect brain cells from oxidative damage. Researchers have linked the quercetin in onions to a lower risk of neurodegenerative diseases. It also supports long-term memory and cognitive function. Overall, onions are an easy dietary addition to support brain longevity.
Onions Have Antibacterial Properties
A Venetian Boy Onion-Seller by Hilda Montalba
They’re rich in allicin, which has antibacterial and antifungal effects. They may help protect the colon and digestive tract from harmful microbes. Onions support overall gut balance and detoxification.
Overall, onions are a natural way to reinforce the body’s defenses. So, lots of reasons to eat onions. Raw onions retain more sulfur compounds and antioxidants before cooking, making them slightly more beneficial than cooked ones. However, both have useful health benefits.
No wonder people have used them in folk medicine as congestion, cough, and cold medicine for centuries. If you have some extra onions lying around, why not whip up an old-fashioned honey and onion cough syrup?
Onion Tears
Girl Chopping Onions by Gerrit Dou
Raw or cooked, onions typically involve slicing or chopping. Which often involves tears. If onion tears are a problem for you, you might want to watch this short video.
FYI, onion tears are chemically different from emotional tears. Indeed, your body produces a myriad of tears every day. Whether triggered by onions, allergies, intense emotion or just to keep your eyes from drying out, they’re all different. I don’t want to fall into a research rabbit hole, but you might want to explore on your own.
“Common Onion (Allium cepa) unity, macrocosm and microcosm, the ability to see the multilayeredness of reality, balance between all elements, finding comfort in the earth, emotional release, the symbolism and magic of tears, needing to defend yourself in a memorable way, connection to and protection of soldiers, oaths, treasuring the “simple” joys of life.
“Onions and garlic share much of the same mythology and folklore and totemically share similar attitudes about protection and defense.
“Onions and garlic have long been considered to bestow strength and endurance and were included in the diets of Egyptian slaves and Greek Olympians.
“The word “onion” is derived from the Latin word “unio” which means “unity” or “oneness”, and it is here that Onion’s most mystical teachings are found. The layers of onions have been referenced often in literature as a metaphor for discovering multiple facets of something or for uncovering a truth. Ancient Egyptians, who viewed the circles of the onion as a symbol for eternity, revered, perhaps even worshiped, onions.
Microscopic Onion Cells
“If the ancients discovered the Macrocosm in the onion, then, in a way, we in modern times are given our first glimpses of Microcosm in the same plant. Viewing dyed onion cells under a microscope is one of the first examples young biology students are given of the complexity of life on a microscopic level. In an almost poetic way Onion has helped many of us view yet another layer to life.
“If you choose (or are chosen) to become a student of Onion expect to learn much more than the lessons you first sought out. Onion is as multilayered spiritually as it is physically…. Onion is in equal measures earthy and mystical and students are likely to be asked to examine their lives in a very holistic manner that brings the two states into a harmonious union.”
Cromniomancy (Onion Divination)
The earliest written mention occurs in Robert Burton’s The Anatomy of Melancholy. He referred to cromniomancies as a custom of laying onions on an altar on Christmas Eve in order to divine when someone will marry.
Cromniomancy usually involves interpreting the sprouting behavior of onions, after some kind of ritual to state the topic of the divination. This often involves inscribing the onions, dedicating them on an altar or something similar. But people can also perform cromniomancy in idiosyncratic ways not involving sprouting.
Historically, people across Europe, Africa, and northern Asia have performed cromniomancy. The sphere within a sphere of the onion made it a much-revered symbol of spirituality and eternity, to the extent that the ancient Egyptians took their sacred oaths with their right hand on an onion. There are many forms of cromniomancy, from divining the weather by the thickness of the skin, to gaining inside information.
Miscellaneous Onion Uses
Cleaning and Polishing
Onion Air!
Have rusty knives lying around that you are hesitant to use? Plunge your knife into a large raw onion and this will immediately remove rust.
Dirty, grimy, grill? No problem! Chop an onion in half, and then use a fork to hold half of the onion to scrub the grill.
In fact, onions are effective for polishing most metals. Crush a raw onion and combine it with equal part water. With a cloth, dab it on the metal surface. Rub until everything is shiny and clean.
Healing and Soothing Skin
The magical onion enzymes are also effective for “removing acne.” Mix crushed onion slices with water and apply to acne. The components of the onion are harsh on zits and effectively remove them.
The calming properties of onions can help in treating minor burns. Rub an onion on top of a burn to soothe the pain.
Fix Obnoxious Odors
Is the smell of new paint keeping you up all night? Rather than purchasing expensive room freshener, place several freshly cut slices of onion in a dish with a bit of water. Leave the bowl in the newly painted room overnight, it will combat the unpleasant, and sometimes unhealthy, odors of paints and varnishes.
Overcook your rice and want to get rid of that burnt smell that seeps into every corner of your house? Place half an onion next to the stove — it’ll absorb the smell.
Around the House
Onion Skins for Easter Egg Dye
Onion skins make great dyes! It’s as simple as wrapping eggs in onion skins, tying them up in a towel to secure them, and boiling as usual. They’ll come out with a beautiful, orange tint. Red onions will create a purplish-pink dye.
Bugs hate the pungent-smelling compound allicin found in onions — making it a perfect choice for natural and organic insect repellent. And making it is simple: blend two onions and a clove of garlic with a quart of water until smooth. Use cheesecloth to filter and pour the mixture into a spray bottle. There you have it — a nature-friendly insect repellent that will keep the pesky bugs away without harming your plants.
Bottom Line: Whether food or food for thought, magical or practical, onions have something for everyone!
One brain, two brains, Three brains, or four, Five brains, six brains, Seven brains or more.
According to Merriam-Webster , brains are the central processing units (organs) whose function is to control functionalities of a living body. Who needs—or could even use—more than one brain? Certainly not humans!
But consider other animals, living other lives, needing to function differently to live and reproduce.
The current (10-09-2025) issue of The New York Review of Books had a l-o-n-g article on five (!) books about octopuses (Such Flexible Intensity of Life by Verlyn Klinkenborg). The first paragraph includes the sentence, “An octopuses’s brain is distributed throughout its soft, amorphous body: nine brainlike (sic) nerve clusters, one at the base of each arm and another at its head.” It’s a fun read about how octopuses live, why each arm needs a brain, and what several writers have to say about them.
My immediate thought was “Do other animals have more than one brain?” Read on to learn what I discovered!
Multiple Brains
For many animals, one brain simply isn’t enough for the job.
Cephalopod Brain Arrangements
Cephalopods include octopuses, squids, nautiluses, and cuttlefish.
Octopus Anatomy
These animals all possess many arms. Their central brains form a ring around their esophagus and their arms are constantly testing the environment, processing the information they gather, “thinking” for themselves.
Octopuses have nine brains. The main one is in their head. In addition, each arm can touch, control, and move independently of the others thanks to the cluster of neurons in it. This is part of what makes them so smart. They’re able to figure out puzzles, open containers, and untie knots. In total, octopuses have more than 500 million neurons, only 30% located in the central brain. The brains don’t have to communicate with one another to work, but they can stay in touch to be more effective. (For more fascinating details, check out Ze Facts’ video True Facts About The Octopus.)
Squids have three brains. The main one is used to control the body as a whole while the other two (optic lobes) are dedicated to the eyes. Squid brains resemble donuts in shape. Though there are three brains, they are relatively small compared to the size of the body. Based on research on squids, approximately 80 percent of the brainpower goes toward processing visual information.
Australian Giant Cuttlefish
Cuttlefish are cousins to octopuses and squids. With 500 million neurons dispersed throughout the body, some say they have 9 brains. Cuttlefish can count up to 5, on par with infant humans and young monkeys. They can delay gratification: hungry cuttlefish will resist mediocre treats for tastier ones delivered later, a sign of intelligence thought to be important for decision making and planning. When cuttlefish were trained to remember when and what they were fed, older cuttlefish did just as well as the young cuttlefish even though they showed other signs of aging
Insect Brain Arrangements
Scientists estimate there are more than 900,000 different types of insects. I’m concerned here with the brain arrangements of cockroaches, bumblebees, and mosquitoes.
Bumblebee brain structure
Bumblebees have three brains as well. One controls the wings, another controls the stinger, and the third manages the antennae. These brains are more focused on instinct and basic memorization than actual memories and behaviors. Compared to other insects and their sizes, bumblebee brains are rather small. However, they are able to remember flowers and areas full of pollen for future use. They can find their way to previous locations, new areas, and back home.
Mosquitoes have three brains inside their body. The first is in the head, the second in the wings, and the third in the abdomen. These brains tend to focus on working the nearest body part. Mosquitoes have a central brain that runs the whole body, one that runs the wings, and one that runs the legs and stomach. Though their brains are tiny, about 1/1000th the size, and only 100 million neurons compared to 10 billion in people, they are still rather smart. They learn to avoid certain predator habitats, and how to find food and water via smell.
Head brain of a cockroach
Cockroaches have two brains, one in the head, the other near the abdomen. This is what allows cockroaches to continue to move for a while even if they become decapitated. Though they might live for a minute, they will still die shortly after decapitation. The two brains also allow cockroaches to move fast. They are also intelligent, remembering where they left items and recognizing various objects. They can even remember faces. Though their brains are about 1/20th the size of a human’s and have about a third of the number of neurons, they have twice as many synapses. These synapses are what pass information back and forth. This allows for memory storage and keeps the brain active.
Annelid Brain Arrangements
Annelids, aka segmented worms, include more than 20,000 species, none of which you’d want to invite for dinner. Many of them, including leeches and silkworm moths, have very interesting brain configurations.
Leeches may have the most brains of any animal. A leech’s body contains 32 different segments. Each of these segments has its own brain. These brains are actually small ganglions and are responsible for their specific section. Each of these 32 different brains have about 400 neurons. Together, there are about 500 unique types of neurons in one leech. This design might help them make faster decisions, slow down the aging process, or allow them to use brains in place of nerves.
Silkworms and silkworm moths, also have quite a few brains. They have 11 distinct brain lobes; other moths and butterflies don’t have as many lobes. Additionally, most other similar insects form one brain made up of several lobes, rather than distinct lobes. The brains of silkworms are less than a tenth of the size of a human brain. However, they’ve been shown to remember and learn information rather than just relying on instincts.
Gastropod Brain Arrangements
Snails and slugs, the two types of gastropods, have very similar brain structures. However, they’re not entirely the same.
Snails have three to six brains! Originally, species had two sets of ganglia, or brains, for movement, breathing, and eating. However, in many species, the two sets fused into one and formed a nerve ring around it. In some species, especially the more primitive ones, it’s more likely to see two sets still, for a total of six brains instead of three.
Despite being fragile and simple, slugs have three brains. They are located in the esophagus and are called buccal, cerebral, and pleural. The buccal is used for feeding, the cerebral is used for movement and senses, and the pleural manages breathing and respiration. For a long time, slugs were thought to have pretty weak brains overall, especially considered to be weaker than average mammal brains. However, scientists found that slug brains work similarly to humans in some ways. They save memories and patterns in the same way the average human would.
Arachnid Brain Arrangements
Arachnids, which are not insects, by the way, have only one brain. Nevertheless, they can behave in ways that seem extra intelligent. Here, I’ll deal only with spiders as an example.
There’s a surprising amount of activity behind those eyes.
Spiders have large brains for their size, some spiders having brains that take up 80% of the body. The brain of a spider sits inside its fused head and thorax, surrounded by muscle and other tissues. The large brains are important for functions like web building or hunting. Behaviors that can be described as “cognitive,” as opposed to automatic responses, are fairly common among spiders. From orb weavers that adjust the way they build their webs based on the type of prey they are catching to ghost spiders that can learn to associate a reward with the smell of vanilla , there’s more going on in spider brains than they commonly get credit for.
Single Brains
Mammals normally have only one brain. However, exceptions can occur in dogs, monkeys, cats, and even human beings — but these are mainly due to polycephaly, a rare genetic anomaly when an animal is born with two heads. Which means two brains.
Mammals’ single brains come in a wide variety
No Brains
Scientists have not reached any consensus on whether zombies actually have brains of their own.
And there are some animals with no brains or nervous tissue of any kind.
They tend to be extremely simple animals possessing rudimentary biological characteristics sufficient for survival. Many are immobile, using sensory nerves to “find” food and avoid danger. Oddly enough, they are similar to technology (such as computers and smartphones), which also use sensors to detect light, movement, chemicals, and so on. Brainless animals operate in the same manner, allowing them to do the things they need to survive.
A Few Examples
Sponges survive on the sea floor by taking nutrients into their porous bodies. There are conflicting theories as to whether sponges have always been this way or evolved to get rid of their brains to be more energy efficient.
Sea urchins are pointy, spiky animals, you don’t want to step on while at the beach. Fortunately, outside of South Florida, sea urchins are not poisonous. They have various numbers of legs and control feeding by way of a water vascular system. That system changes the amount of pressure and water in its body, in order to move faster. (Starfish operate the same way.) Its mouth is beneath it. They expel waste from the top of their bodies. The sea urchin sits on stones, scraping and feeding on the algae that helps keep the ocean clean.
Sea urchin innards
Sea cucumbers look like worms and feed on plankton. They’re everywhere and extremely dangerous. They can release a toxic substance (holothurin), which can blind humans permanently. However, without a brain, they’re not a deliberate threat. There are more than a thousand types of sea cucumbers. Many of the species live in deep water. They feed instinctively, using tubular feet around the mouth to catch and take aquatic invertebrates, algae, and waste. These creatures exhibit asexual and sexual reproduction.
Jellyfish (sea gooseberry) anatomy
Jellyfish (or “jellies”) are a family of translucent animals, famous—perhaps infamous—for their sting. When their tentacles touch a foreign object (such as a swimmer) they release a shooting sting. That sting releases a toxin capable of neutralizing or killing most intruders, though humans usually experience only temporary misery. Jellyfish are uniquely mobile. All other brainless animals are pretty much stationary, often spending their entire lives in a single spot. However, jellyfish move with the current in oceans and bays. They also squirt water to move forward. Thus they can propel themselves toward prey, such as plankton. Their ability to move also helps them avoid predators, such as fish, turtles, and seabirds. The jellyfish functions through a network of sensory nerves.
Bottom Line: Animals have the number, size, and structure of the brains they need to live, function, and reproduce.
Being a Wall Street Journal story, of course it had a commercial slant. The essence of the article is that Mars (makers of Whiskas food and Temptations treats) is hoping to benefit from the rise in cat ownership in Gen Z households. They initiated an internal program called “Cattitude” to get their dog-loving employees on board with this new cat emphasis.
Buying Love with Treats
Their research revealed that, compared to cat-only owners, dog-only owners were 32% more likely to give daily treats.
Products and cats connect through people. So Mars also investigated cat owners’ concerns, and cited their findings from typing “does my cat…” into a Google search: the top two results were “love me” and “know I love her.” I did the same search with DuckDuckGo and found that, among the top eight searches that came up, four questioned owner-cat love and one “does my cat hate me.”
So, my search confirmed the WSJ conclusion that cat owners often suffer from “feline insecurity.” The Mars solution is to produce foods and treats that cats like better, often with a new twist. For example, lickable spoons to be hand held “to create what the company calls an ‘enhanced bonding moment.’”
Giving Love, Getting Cattitude
So do cat owners know love when they see it?
Cats show their love in many quirky and subtle ways. According to a veterinarian, weird things cats do when they love you include slow blinking, kneading, bringing gifts, head bunting, wrapping their tails around you, and showing their belly. Other signs are purring, grooming, sitting next to you, following you around, and even mooning you as a sign of trust (YouTube.) Animal Wellness Magazine published an article explaining ten sometimes-confusing ways cats show affection for their humans.
And cats communicate lots more than affection through their behaviors. For example, chattering when they see prey indicates excitement or frustration, while rubbing their head on you (bunting) shows marking territory as well as affection. Kneading reflects contentment or stress relief, and sleeping in small spaces like boxes makes them feel safe. Eye contact, slow blinking, and tail wagging can signal trust, affection, or alertness. When they bring gifts, it’s a sign of sharing their hunting success and affection. Understanding these behaviors helps strengthen your bond with your cat.
Problematic Cattitude
Of course, not every feline oddity signals pleasant feelings. Worrisome cat behaviors may indicate health or stress problems.
Aggression
Litter box issues
Excessive scratching
Sudden changes in eating, drinking, or activity levels
House-soiling
Increased vocalization
Over-grooming
These signs should prompt a vet visit, as they could signal medical or behavioral issues (PetMD, MedVet, Brookside Vet).
Bottom Line: To make the most of cat ownership, “listen” to what your cat is telling you.
Black Stone of Mecca: Muslim object of veneration, part of the Kaʿbah within the Great Mosque
Stones for Power and Beauty
If visiting stones is good for you, why not just wear them? Many people wear precious and semiprecious stones for more than just eye appeal.
Whenever I am in Corolla, NC, I always visit The Mystic Jewel. (They also have a store in Duck and sell online.) Each purchase has been accompanied by a card. Based on these cards and information in a stone “bible” by Simmons and Ahsian, I venture to assert that there are no bad stones!
For example, one of my favorites (because it coordinates with my go-to black pants or jeans) is black onyx. (Fyi, onyx can be red, green, or several other colors.)
According to Ahsian, “Black Onyx teaches the appropriate use of power and the focusing of energy into positive force. It is excellent for those who are working to develop their telekinetic abilities.” And physically, “Black Onyx can be used to help stimulate the connection between the feet and the first chakra. This can be helpful for those suffering from weak legs, or who have difficulty grounding or eliminating bodily waste or excess energy.”
You can research virtually any stone for its purported spiritual, emotional, and physical qualities, and any astrological connections as well.
Chakras
Millions of people worldwide wear chakra jewelry for such reasons. Chakra means wheel in Sanskrit. The basic belief is that the body has seven main energy centers that look like spinning wheels or Chakras. They permit energy to flow from one part of the body to another. When these Chakras are aligned and functioning properly, we feel a sense of balance on all levels—physical, emotional, and spiritual. Gemstones are often used to strengthen and balance the Chakras.
The concept of the chakra arose in Hinduism. Beliefs differ between the Indian religions: Buddhist texts mention four or five chakras, while Hindu sources often have six or seven. The modern “Western chakra system” arose from multiple sources, starting in the 1880s.
Chakra Stones
Crown
7th chakra
Center of wisdom and knowledge
White stones (quartz, selenite, or moonstone)
Brow or Third Eye
6th chakra
Center of insight and intuitive powers
Purple stones (quartz, amethyst)
Throat
5th chakra
Center for communication and creative expression
Blue stones (turquoise, sodalite, or lapis)
Heart
4th chakra
Energize love, compassion, and forgiveness
Pink or green stones (rose quartz, aventurine)
Solar Plexus
3rd chakra
Center of energy and emotion
Yellow stones (citrine, tiger eye, calcite)
Spleen
2nd chakra
Center of creativity and social interaction
Orange stones (carnelian and amber)
Root or Base
1st chakra
Center of safety, stability, and grounding
Red or black stones (garnet, hematite, black tourmaline)
All sorts of jewelry—rings, bracelets, pendant, earrings—featuring stones for all seven chakras, in order, is readily available. If you search for chakra jewelry, for example on eBay or Etsy, the seven-gem option will come up as a “best match” although jewelry designs featuring a single stone are touted as well.
Bottom Line: Wear, touch, seek out, and treasure stones, whether for esthetic, fashion, or other reasons. Even if they don’t actually help, they won’t hurt!
Fun fact: About 95% of your total skin area is covered in hair. Who knew you were so, well, hairy?! (wella.com)
But when speaking of someone’s “hair” the usual meaning is hair growing from the scalp, although less frequently facial, pubic, and other body hair. This blog will focus on head hair.
Hair care routines differ according to an individual’s culture and the physical characteristics of one’s hair. In the United States, my search for “ethnic hairstyles” turned up only Black hairstyles. Here are a few examples:
Shamefully (in my opinion) these and many other distinctive hairstyles have been forbidden in schools and work settings—historically, but still today. Even when not dealing with outright bans, people wearing these hairstyles often still face discrimination at work, when seeking medical care, at school, while shopping, even while seeking housing.
Although Black people, especially women, are aware of hair styles as part of their self-concepts, I venture to suggest that many women (and some men) are deeply committed to their hair as an expression of their unique identities.
Hairy Length
Some people don’t ever cut their hair, for religious, fashion, or cultural reasons.
One of the most obvious and most noticeable hair variations is length.
Fun fact: According to Wella, when you add up how much each hair on your head grows over a year’s time, you get 10 miles worth of hair!
Hair can be any length, of course. For the average person, growing waist-length hair would take about 7 years, 3 years to grow to your shoulders.
As of 2024, the Guiness record for hair length is 8 ft. 5.3 in. (257.33 cm) in length, officially the longest hair on a living person (female). The record holder is Aliia Nasyrova of Ukraine.
The Beatles illustrating several hair lengths (Valisk)
Shaved – hair that is completely shaved down to the scalp Buzz – hair that is extremely short and hardly there Cropped – hair that is a little longer than a buzz Short back and sides – hair that is longer than a crop, but does not yet hit the ears, with the top being left longer Ear-length – hair reaching one’s ears Bob – reaching to one’s chin Shoulder-length – brushing the tops of one’s shoulders Princess-length – reaching between the shoulder blades and the tailbone, depending on the speaker
In short, anything goes for hair cuts, but by and large, it seems to me that the longer the hair, the more time, effort, and possibly money go into taking care of it.
A 2024 CNN report found the average cost of a women’s haircut ranging between $45 and $75 across the country, while men’s toggled between $25 and $50. Besides sexism, what might account for this?
Enhancing Nature’s Hairy Bounty
If you are naturally less hairy or differently hairy than you would like, fear not! There are a variety of ways you can change the appearance of the hair on your head.
Wigs
Hair pieces
Extensions
Dyes
Texture changes (straightening or curling)
Transplants
Removal
Changing Color
Specialized colorists can achieve pretty amazing results!
Fun fact: According to Wella, in 1950, about 7% of American women dyed their hair. Today, 60% of American women dye their hair.
Hair coloring, technically, can be either adding pigment to or removing pigment from the hair shaft, commonly referred to as coloring or bleaching, respectively.
—Among the best-known products for men are Just For Men shampoos and comb in color to cover gray hair or beard.
—Temporary hair tints simply coat the shaft with pigments that later wash off.
—Most permanent color changes require that the hair shaft be opened so the color change can take place within. This process can leave hair dry, weak, prone to breakage, or coarse, or cause an accelerated loss of pigment. Generally, the lighter the chosen color from one’s initial hair color, the more damaging the process may be.
—Other options for applying color to hair besides chemical dyes include the use of such herbs as henna and indigo, or choosing ammonia-free solutions.
There is growing demand for natural and non-toxic hair dyes. Various natural pigments, like melanin in animals and curcumin in plants, are used for coloring and dyeing. These alternatives to conventional dyes are bio-friendly and less irritating. Despite the proposed benefits of these dyes, such as antistatic, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties, their complex pigmentation mechanisms remain largely unexplored.
Curling and Straightening
Before and after a chemical perm
You can temporarily change the texture of your hair with curling irons, foam rollers, blow dryers, flat irons, hot combs, and many other implements of heat and pressure. However, time and moisture will return hair to its natural state.
Perms (curling) and relaxing (straightening) using relaxer or thermal reconditioning involve chemical alteration of the internal structure of the hair in order to affect its curliness or straightness. Hair that has been subjected to the use of a permanent is weaker due to the application of chemicals and should be treated gently and with greater care than hair that isn’t chemically altered.
Research shows that hair becomes drier with age. This makes it less able to take and maintain a change in shape.
Hair Transplants
Sew-in hair extensions
Those who are not hairy enough for their personal tastes have a variety of options, some more permanent than others.
One can purchase clip-in hair extensions for a quick boost of hirsute-ness. They need to be taken out before sleeping, washing, or restyling.
For a longer solution, one can visit a hairdresser to have someone else’s hair taped, glued, or sewn onto one’s own tresses. These hair extensions can last from a few weeks to several months, depending on type and care.
For a more permanent change, one might turn to a surgical hair transplant. In this procedure, a doctor surgically moves bits of skin or individual follicles from a hairy area of the head (typically the back or sides) to a less hairy area of the head (typically the top or front). After a few weeks of healing, the newly located hair follicles should behave like any other follicles, giving the patient the appearance of a full head of hair.
Hair Removal
Threading to shape eyebrows
Alternatively, one may feel too hairy. In that case, a variety of methods can help remove unwanted hair.
Hair may be shaved, plucked, or otherwise removed with treatments such as waxing, sugaring, or threading.
Laser hair removal and electrolysis are also available, though these are provided (in the US) by licensed professionals in medical offices or specialty spas.
Hair Loss
Alopecia (baldness) on a man
Alopecia is the blanket term for a range of conditions that cause hair to fall out in up to half of all Americans. It may be temporary or permanent and can have a range of causes, including autoimmune disorder, genetics, and medical treatments.
For it to be apparent that you’re balding, you would have to lose 50% of your hair, according to dermatologists. Most of the factual information in this section comes from The Cleveland Clinic.
On average, you can expect to lose between 50 and 150 hairs daily. On the other hand, you have around 100,000 (or more) hair follicles on your head. So, routine hair shedding is just a drop in the bucket. (This will also depend on the length and thickness of your hair. For example, you’ll appear to shed less if you have shorter or thinner hair.)
Things like stress, heated styling and other health conditions or treatments may cause you to lose more hair than normal. Everyone is aware that chemotherapy often leads to hair loss, but other medications, such as some antidepressants or anticoagulants (blood thinners), might have a side effect of hair loss.
Men vs. Women
Female pattern baldness
“Studies have shown that, in general, men are more likely to experience hair loss than women. On the other hand, women are more likely to experience higher levels of shedding during pregnancy and menopause. Over half of all women will experience noticeable hair loss over time.”
In addition, a study in 2017 showed that women tend to shed more hair due to styling practices. Anyone who uses heavy styling or tight hairstyles can experience increased shedding, which can lead to permanent hair loss if it becomes chronic (called traction alopecia).
The Norwood-Hamilton scale illustrating types of male pattern baldness
Relatively few men are totally bald –i.e., have no hair at all on their heads. Male pattern baldness is common worldwide. However, rates vary by country; in the U.S., the percentage is 42.69, number four after Spain, Italy, and France. According to World Population, Indonesia is the country with the lowest percentage on the list with 26.96%.
Female pattern hair loss (FPHL) affects approximately 40% of women by age 50. Estrogen is related to hair growth and hair loss for women. When estrogen levels are high, hair appears thicker and healthier.
Growing, tending, and arranging hair often strengthens community bonds
Fun fact: According to Wella, in the 16th century, a doctor claimed applying a blend of boiled slugs, olive oil, honey, saffron, soap, and cumin on the scalp could restore hair.
Today, one common treatment to regrow hair is Minoxidil. It is available OTC as liquid or foam to be massaged into the scalp. Tablets in various strengths are available by prescription.
In addition, you can find various nutritional supplements, shampoos, and topical applications on line and in drugstores. Recently, I’ve noticed lots of TV commercials for Nutripol.
And then there is regrowth equipment featuring laser treatments. You can easily find $199 lasercombs or a laser hair growth helmet $995.
Hairstyling Equipment
I didn’t find statistics on the most used hair equipment, but the most popular tools seem to be hair dryers, flat irons, curling irons, and hair brushes. (Good Morning America, missamericanmade.com) Below is a more comprehensive list, although certainly not exhaustive. How many do you use? Others in your household?
“Daenggi” and “Binyeo” used to create traditional Korean “Jjok” hairstyle (by Glimja)
Dryer Brushes Clips Combs Ornamental combs Curling/straightening iron Rollers Clippers Pins and barrettes Beads Headbands Kanzashi (hair ornaments used in traditional Japanese hairstyles) Ribbons Hair ties Scissors Shower cap Sleeping cap
In 2022, American consumers spent around $85.53 on hair care products. (Statista) The average spending per month on hair products is $31, according to Advanced Dermatology. Frankly, I’m surprised it isn’t more, given all the products in use:
Spikes this high require glue rather than gel
Coloring agents
Conditioners
Gel
Glue
Mask
Mousse
Scalp scrubs
Serum
Spray
Sonic
Wax
Pomade
Shampoo
As of Feb 22, 2025, according to Brainly, the number of shampoo options available to Americans is estimated to be at least 600 different products.
Looking at the big picture, “Hair care boasts one of the largest shares in the global beauty market, about 22 percent as of 2022, second only to the skin care segment. In the United States, forecasts show that revenues for hair care will increase up to 14.2 billion U.S. dollars in 2028.” (Statista)
Assorted Hairy Information
A geisha chooses every element of her hair style and hair ornaments very carefully to indicate her rank, age, mentor, and specialties as well as to complement her outfit and the season.
And to end this blog, a few fun facts from Wella that don’t fit anywhere else:
A single strand of hair can support up to 6.5 pounds of weight. That means a whole head of hair can support up to 2 tons (though the owner’s neck and spine might protest)!
The major cause of dandruff is a fungus called Malassezia globosa, which pushes dead skin cells to the surface quicker than normal.
Believe it or not, humans have the same amount of hair follicles per square inch as a chimpanzee!
Less than 4% of the world’s population has natural red hair.
The color of hair depends on how much melanin each strand has. Or which hair dye you use!
Someone purchased a lock of Elvis’ hair at an auction for $15,000.
Stories have circulated for generations that women encoded secret messages or escape maps in the patterns of their braids or cornrows. Alternatively, people have claimed Black women may have been able to smuggle gold, seeds, keys, or other small items in their hair. Though there is little concrete evidence to support these claims, they illustrate the versatility and cultural importance of hair.
Bottom Line: Hair is virtually everywhere, and hair issues are virtually innumerable.
Studies suggest that about 10% of one’s nervous system is dedicated to sensing pain. Given what else the nervous system does—sight, smell, taste, hearing, thinking, moving, digestion, etc., etc., etc.—that’s a lot!
Why so much attention to pain? As it turns out, there are benefits to feeling poorly.
Pain for Gain
Foremost is survival: without unpleasant sensations, we wouldn’t know to avoid fire, allow injuries to heal, attend wounds such as broken bones or cuts, etc.
There are additional ways in which negative feelings lead to have positive consequences.
Pain facilitates pleasure by providing an important contrast for pleasurable experiences, increasing sensitivity to sensory input, and facilitating self-rewarding behavior.
In many communities, the ability to withstand pain or physical endurance marks a child’s elevation to adult status.
Pain augments self-regulation and enhancement by increasing cognitive control, reducing rumination, and demonstrating virtue.
Pain promotes affiliation by arousing empathy from others, motivating social connection, and enhancing group formation.
Pain Reduction
Mesopotamian goddess Nisaba, with opium poppies growing from her shoulders. c 2430 BCE
But for all of that, we try to avoid or minimize feeling bad. Indeed, pain is the most common reason why people seek medical care. Seeking relief is not a new phenomenon, but getting it is.
Surgeons have been using general anesthesia in the Islamic world for nearly two thousand years. In the 1600s, many European doctors gave their patients opium to relieve pain.
The earliest European surgeons operated while keeping patients wide awake and physically restrained. By the 1800s, the nicest surgeons introduced ether and chloroform anesthetics for surgery. And why was this controversial?
Several major religions view physical suffering as intrinsically linked with atonement or moral goodness. Some, such as Buddhism and Taoism, hold that it is caused by an imbalance within the individual and can only be resolved through personal effort. Others, such as Christianity, have historically believed that suffering brings one closer to an ideal spiritual state.
Surgeons operating on patient under ether anesthesia, 1847
Some doctors questioned the ethics of operating on unconscious patients. Others were concerned that relieving pain might hamper healing. “But the surgeons could not long resist their new power to perform longer and more complex procedures, and most patients thought anesthesia a divine blessing,” wrote Marcia Meldrum, an associate researcher in the department of psychiatry and biobehavioral sciences at the University of California, Los Angeles.
By the 1900s, people were using morphine and heroin as pain medications. At first, doctors thought these “safe.” However, over time, it became clear that these treatments also made people vulnerable to addictions.
Until this time, the medical field considered pain to be primarily a problem to manage in acute care (related to injury, for example, or surgery) or during a painful death from cancer.
“Flavors” of Pain
Acute pain is what you feel when you become hurt or injured. You may have experienced acute pain from an injury such as a cut or a broken limb or from disease or inflammation in the body. Acute pain can be intense and severe, but it typically resolves as your body heals from whatever caused it.
Nociceptive pain is caused by tissue damage. Most acute pain is nociceptive.
According to NIH, chronic pain is a sensation that lasts much longer than acute pain―usually months and sometimes years. Chronic pain sometimes has a clear cause, such as an acute injury, a long illness, or damage to and dysfunction of your nervous system. However, it sometimes happens without any obvious reason. Medical providers have often assumed that patients complaining of on-going pain are delusional, hypchrondiacal, malingering, or addicts. Patients often turn to psychotherapy, or sometimes neurosurgery.
Neuropathic pain is caused by nerve damage or dysfunction. You can experience neuropathic pain from injuries or illness that affect the spinal cord and brain (for example, a slipped disc in your spine) or the peripheral nervous system (the nerves throughout the rest of your body). This kind of discomfort often feels similar to burning, shooting, or stabbing.
Inflammatory pain happens when your immune system activates in response to injury or infection. In addition to causing redness or swelling, it can also make you more sensitive to feelings of pain.
Everyone’s pain feels differently, and the only way to know whether someone is hurting is to ask. Has a medical practitioner asked you to rate your discomfort on a scale from 1 to 10? They may also ask you to describe what you feel: dull, throbbing, aching, shooting, stabbing, etc.
Just as there isn’t a way to measure it objectively, there isn’t one single treatment that will work for everyone. It often involves a combination of treatments, which may include:
Over-the-counter and prescription medications (such as pain relievers and drugs that reduce inflammation)
More than 1 in 5 adults in the United States experience chronic pain. Chronic conditions, such as low back pain and migraine, are the leading causes of disability around the world.
Not surprisingly, rates of chronic pain, including conditions that severely limit work or life activities, are highest among adults ages 65 and older.
Advertisement for treatment to cure morphine addiction, c 1900
In the 1980s, several prominent pain specialists suggested that opiods had a “low incidence of addictive behavior.” They pushed for increased use of the drugs to treat long-term, non-cancer pain, as Meldrum noted in her paper “The Ongoing Opioid Prescription Epidemic: Historical Context.” Today we all know how wrong they were, and we are still trying to undo the opioid crisis.
Where Does Aspirin Come From?
1923 advertisement
Apart from prescription medications, over-the-counter options are popular. Aspirin, as it is known today, was first developed in 1895 in Germany. By 1915, Bayer Pharmaceuticals developed the first tablet form, which they then sold throughout the world as a medicine.
The active ingredient in aspirin is acetylsalicylic acid, which is formed by the acetylation of salicylic acid, which is derived from natural plant sources such as jasmine, willow and poplar trees, as well as certain species of legumes.
This gives credence to the efficacy of willow bark tea for minor aches and pains, as long claimed by folk medicine practitioners.
Aspirin molecule, acetylsalicylic acid (ASA)
However, aspirin is no longer made from willow bark. Today, pharmaceutical companies derive aspirin from plants of the Spiraea genus. Compounders then convert the salicylic acid into acetylsalicylic acid via acetylation.
Aspirin is very useful in many ways besides pain relief. Indeed, doctors use it as a blood thinner to treat clots. At a daily dose of 81mg, it is helpful in preventing future heart attacks.
But beware: You should not use aspirin if you have a bleeding disorder such as hemophilia, a recent history of stomach or intestinal bleeding, or if you are allergic to an NSAID (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) such as Advil, Motrin, Aleve, Orudis, Indocin, Lodine, Voltaren, Toradol, Mobic, Relafen, Feldene, and others.
OTC Alternatives
A common alternative to aspirin is Tylenol. Acetaminophen, commonly sold under this brand name, is a non-opioid analgesic that relieves pain and reduces fever. Acetaminophen regulates the body’s temperature and alters its perception of pain.
Tylenol is generally safe at recommended doses. For adults weighing more than 110 pounds (50 kg), the recommended acetaminophen dosage is 1000 mg every six hours or 650 mg every four hours.
Risks
However, elderly individuals may face higher risks of certain side effects due to physiological changes, including:
Liver Damage: Aging decreases liver efficiency. This raises the risk of liver damage from acetaminophen, especially if taken in high doses or with alcohol.
Kidney Damage: As kidney function naturally declines with age, long-term or high-dose use of acetaminophen may lead to kidney damage in the elderly, particularly if their kidneys are already compromised.
Gastrointestinal Issues: Although Tylenol is easier on the stomach than nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), it can still cause gastrointestinal discomfort. This may include nausea, constipation, or diarrhea.
Acetaminophen toxicity occurs when a person takes more than the recommended dosage of this medicine. Tylenol overdose leads to 56,000 emergency department visits, 2,600 hospitalizations, and 500 deaths each year in the United States, making it one of the most common poisonings. Too much of a good thing is not a good thing!
Apart from any hedonistic motives to “just feel good,” pain is an economic drain: the estimated yearly national cost of pain, including medical treatments, disability, and lost productivity, is $560 billion to $635 billion in the U.S. alone!
Bottom Line: Pain is universal, and treating it is only human. But proceed with caution!
I love freshly ground black pepper! Those who know me know my favorite flavor so well that a friend gave me my personal pepper grinder, with a black bag to carry it with me virtually anywhere.
Pepper loses its flavor and aroma through evaporation, so keep it in an airtight container and out of the sun. For the best flavor, grind whole peppercorns just before eating. But beware: whipping out your personal pepper grinder at McDonald’s might earn you some stares and side-eyed looks.
And I’m not alone in liking pepper. Black pepper represents about 50% of a typical restaurant’s spice usage. The United States is currently the world’s biggest consumer of pepper. As of 2024, the United States imported US$325.6 million (19% of total black pepper imports).
Nor is pepper only recently appreciated. People have used pepper in cooking for over 4,000 years. Ancient Egyptians placed pepper in the nostrils of mummies to accompany the pharaohs over 2,500 years before Christ.
Long before “black gold” came to mean oil in some places, in the “Old World” it was a synonym for pepper. Pepper was so valuable in ancient times that people used it to pay taxes, tributes, dowries, and rent. It was weighed like gold and used as a common medium of exchange.
In ancient Greece, priests offered pepper to the gods in sacred rituals and even used it in place of gold.
Pliny the Elder complained in 77 C.E. about the price of peppercorns and the amount of money Rome paid to India every year for black pepper. When Alaric, king of the Visigoths, captured Rome in AD 410, he demanded 3,000 pounds of pepper (in addition to gold and silver) as ransom.
There are some arguments that black pepper may have been available in China as early as the Second Century B.C.E., during the Han Dynasty. However, historians generally agree that the hujiao (胡椒, foreign pepper) described in Chinese records in the Third Century C.E., was piper nigrum, black pepper.
I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover, Yet within I bear a burning marrow. I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table, Both the sauces and the tenderized meats of the kitchen. But you will find in me no quality of any worth, Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow.
In the Middle Ages in Europe, pepper was an acceptable form of currency in some regions. Indeed, at times, peppercorns were worth more by weight than silver. A scornful term for wealthy merchants in medieval Germany was pfeffersack or “pepper sack.” The value of peppercorns, among other spices, made ventures like that of Christopher Columbus a worthwhile financial prospect.
Is Black Pepper Good for Anything but Flavor?
All indications are “Yes.” And here’s an overview!
Like many spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a medicine. Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani medicines in India all mention black peppercorns. The Buddhist Samaññaphala Sutta lists pepper as one of the few medicines monks may carry. The 5th century Syriac Book of Medicines prescribes pepper for many illnesses:
Constipation
Diarrhea
Earache
Gangrene
Heart disease
Hernia
Hoarseness
Indigestion
Insect bites
Insomnia
Joint pain
Liver problems
Lung disease
Oral abscesses
Sunburn
Tooth decay
Toothaches
Various sources from the 5th century onward also say pepper is good to treat eye problems. Sometimes, physicians applied special ointments containing pepper directly to the eye. There is no current medical evidence that any of these treatments has any benefit; pepper applied directly to the eye would be quite uncomfortable and possibly damaging.
What Modern Research Reveals
Black pepper on its own provides some of the minerals needed in a healthy diet. One tablespoon (6 grams) of ground black pepper contains moderate amounts of vitamin K (13% of the daily value or DV), iron (10% DV), and manganese (18% DV), with trace amounts of other essential nutrients, protein, and dietary fiber.
Scientists at the Royal Society of Medicine and Sabinsa Corporation are studying piperine’s potential to increase absorption of selenium, vitamin B12, beta-carotene, and curcumin, as well as other compounds.
Black pepper and its active compound piperine may have potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Isolated piperine crystals
Laboratory studies suggest that black pepper may improve cholesterol levels, blood sugar control, and brain and gut health.
Despite these promising findings, more studies in humans are needed to better understand the exact health benefits of black pepper and its concentrated extracts.
Pepper can irritate the intestines. Doctors encourage patients having abdominal surgery or ulcers to eliminate black pepper from their diets.
Components of black pepper are often added to commercial mouthwashes and breath fresheners to treat sore throats.
Piperine molecular formula: C17H19NO3
The caffeine content level of black pepper, as far as I could find, is negligible.
Pepper contains small amounts of safrole, a carcinogenic compound. I found no evidence that this is problematic.
How Many Kinds of Black Pepper are There?
Excluding sweet bell peppers, chili peppers, etc., which are entirely different plants, there’s only one pepper.
Black Pepper comes from the dried fruit peppercorn (piper nigrum). It grows on a perennial flowering vine. When the plants reach maturity, peppercorns are stripped from the stem and then boiled for a few minutes before drying in the sun for several days. They are then flash dried. Black peppercorns are green when harvested and change color while drying.
Commercial pepper comes in many colors—green, black, red, and white—but all come from the same plant, the color determined by how ripe it is and how it has been processed.
White peppercorns are black pepper without skin. Ground table pepper is typically 70% black and 30% white. However, the good stuff is 50/50.
While black pepper is a staple in most American kitchens, white pepper is more popular in French, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Swedish cooking. White pepper, though similar to black, has a sharper and mustier flavor. Use care when substituting one for the other!
Because the berries remain on the vine longer than normal before harvest, red peppercorns are the most expensive available.
Growers classify pepper as either garbled or un-garbled. The garbled variety is black and nearly globular, with a wrinkled surface. The ungarbled variety also has a wrinkled surface, but the color varies from dark brown to black.
Once the peppercorns are dried, pepper spirit and oil can be extracted from the berries by crushing them. Many medicinal and beauty products include pepper spirit. Pepper oil is also popular in ayurvedic massage oil and in certain beauty and herbal treatments.
Note: A completely unrelated species (chili peppers from the Capsicum family) is referred to as “red pepper.” Chili peppers, which are native to the Americas, were originally introduced to Europe as a substitute for black pepper due to their pungent flavor.
And a Few More Pepper Facts
People have long believed pepper is the cause for sneezing. Some sources say that piperine irritates the nostrils, which will cause the sneezing. Others say that it is just the effect of the fine dust in ground pepper. Still others say that pepper is not in fact a very effective sneeze-producer at all. Few if any controlled studies have been carried out to answer the question.
The plant is particular about soil conditions and thrives in soil that is “just right,” not too dry and not too wet.
Pepper is cultivated in tropical regions and is native to the Malabar region of southern India, where it grows as a tall vine with the peppercorns as flowering drupes.
Traders formed spice routes from India to Europe and often fought over them. One source maintains that, in an attempt to establish direct trade with Indian pepper plantations, Christopher Columbus inadvertently stumbled upon the Americas and consequently mislabeled the native inhabitants as “Indians.”
In the past, the expense of pepper limited its consumption to the extremely wealthy classes in India. For the first time, India is now a net pepper importer because of rising consumption among the growing middle class.
Accounting for about 20% of the monetary value of the world’s spice trade, black pepper is now produced mainly in India, Vietnam, Brazil, and Indonesia.
Pastry chefs in fine dining restaurants include black pepper in all kinds of desserts. It’s an especially delicious surprise in chocolate sweets, from fudge brownies and chocolate layer cake to chocolate truffles.
What Pepper isn’t Good For
A commonly held myth claims that cooks in the Middle Ages used pepper to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat. There is no evidence to support this claim, and historians view it as highly unlikely: in the Middle Ages, pepper was a luxury item, affordable only to the very wealthy, who certainly had unspoiled meat available. In addition, at that time, people certainly knew that eating spoiled food would make them sick. In fact, a law in York, England required butchers to sell meat within 24 hours of slaughtering or face a fine!
A similar belief that pepper was in wide use as a preservative is also questionable. It is true that piperine, the compound that gives pepper its spiciness, has some antimicrobial properties. However, at the concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the effect is small.
Bottom Line: Given possible health effects, and no evidence of possible “overdose,” this amazing flavor-enhancer is worth adding to your daily cooking: its bold flavor is a great addition to almost any dish, savory or sweet.
Because April is Dog Appreciation Month AND Canine Fitness Month, I’ve been posting about dogs on FaceBook almost daily. But there are dozens more—different—fun facts about dogs out there, and not enough April days left to share them. So, for your reading pleasure, from across the web:
There are over 75 million pet dogs in the U.S.—more than in any other country—and a third of ALL households around the world have a dog.
Part of the Family
Forty-five percent of dogs sleep in their owner’s beds. Here’s hoping they share the blanket!
Seventy percent of people sign their dog’s name on their holiday cards. If you want your dog to actually sign, use a nose print. Dog (and cat) nose prints are unique.
A study at UCSD claims that your dog can genuinely get jealous when they see you display affection for another creature.
Dogs can experience separation anxiety. If this is true of your dog, try leaving some clothing you’ve worn with your pet. It’s been proven that the scent you leave behind on your clothes can help ease your dog’s separation anxiety.
Yawning is contagious — even for dogs. Research shows that the sound of a human yawn can trigger a yawn from a dog. And it’s four times as likely to happen when it’s the yawn of a person the pet knows.
Dog Sensitivity
Dogs have wet noses for a few reasons. The moisture helps to absorb scent chemicals, sweat glands on the snout help regulate temperature, and many dogs lick their noses to clean them or taste dirt that may be there.
A dog’s sense of smell is legendary, but did you know that their nose has as many as 300 million scent receptors? In comparison, a human nose has about 5 million. Your dog can smell 40 times better than you can.
The Bloodhound ’s sense of smell is so accurate that law enforcement agents can use the results of its tracking as evidence in some courts of law. An old Scottish word for this type of dog was “sleuth-hound” from which we derive the word “sleuth” for a detective.
Your dog can smell your feelings. In fact, your dog’s sense of smell is approximately 100,000 times better than yours. So it shouldn’t be shocking that they can in fact, smell things such as fear. When a human is fearful, they perspire, and a dog is easily able to pick up on this change.
Dogs can be trained to detect cancer and other diseases in humans. Cancerous cells release different metabolic waste products than healthy cells in the human body. Dogs may even be able to sniff out cancer cells simply through smelling someone’s breath.
All puppies are born deaf. As they get older, they can hear 4 times better than humans.
Adult dogs have fantastic hearing! They can detect high-pitched noises and spot sounds from much further away than humans can.
Dogs are not color-blind. They can see blue and yellow.
Dogs don’t see in as much detail as humans. Perfect sight for a human is 20:20, but for a dog, it’s 20:70 or 20:80. However, dogs track movement better than people because of a structure in their eye called a visual streak, which humans don’t have. So they’re very good at seeing horizontal movement and tracking it, even if visually they might not be able to make out what, precisely, is moving.
Dogs have about 1,700 taste buds. (We humans have between 2,000 and 10,000.) However, dogs are more sensitive to impurities in water than humans are, making it very important to ensure your dog always has access to clean, fresh water.
Dog Intelligence
Dogs have a sense of time. They have proven in multiple studies that they know the difference between one hour and five. Often they can predict future events, such as regular walk times.
Dogs can also “tell time” from scent. Your dog will start getting excited or more active around the time you come home from work each day. They do this because we are creatures of habit and are typically gone the same amount of time every day. When we leave our scent in the house, it fades over time; when we get home, that scent is at a certain level. Dogs become conditioned that we will return when our scents hit that lower level.
Your dog is as smart as a two-year old! Ever wonder why children around this age seem to have a special bond with the family dog? It could be because they speak the same language, roughly 250 words and gestures.
Not all mammals understand pointing but dogs and humans do. Dogs even understand pointing when you do it with your eyes and not your hands.
Stray dogs in Russia have learned how to ride the subway system, and get off at specific stops in search of food.
From their ears to their eyebrows, shoulders, and tail, dogs use signals and smells, as well as sound, to communicate! Their posture makes a big difference, too.
Dog Health
Dogs mostly pant to cool themselves. They have sweat glands between their toes; sweaty paws dogs help to stay cool. This also gives them the added benefit of a better grip.
Dogs have three eyelids. They have upper and lower eyelids, but also a third eyelid underneath, known as the nictitating membrane. This membrane serves multiple functions, including clearing the cornea of any particles or debris, producing tears, and acting similarly to a lymph node to battle potential infections.
A majority of strays that end up in shelters are pets who are lost simply because they don’t have any identification. Additionally, Fourth of July is the busiest time of year for animal shelters: many pets are so frightened of loud fireworks that they run away.
Chocolate can be deadly to dogs due to containing the ingredient theobromine. Dogs cannot metabolize theobromine, and ingesting chocolate could cause a severely toxic buildup in their system, which could become fatal. American chocolate is bad but not typically lethal.
Xylitol is super poisonous. This includes gum, toothpaste and rarely peanut butter. A stick of gum is usually an ER visit, a handful of Hershey’s kisses is usually not deadly.
Health Benefits of Dogs for Humans
Petting a dog can actually benefit your physical and mental health. Studies have shown that petting a dog for 15 minutes can lower blood pressure by 10%, combat loneliness, and help lower feelings of stress and depression.
Children living in a home with a pet dog tend to develop stronger immune systems and have lower incidences of asthma. Scientists speculate this is a result of being exposed at an early age to allergens and bacteria that a dog introduces to the home.
Human blood pressure goes down when petting a dog. And so does the dog’s.
The average dog sleeps for about half of every day, or around 12–14 hours. That figure is higher for puppies, older dogs, and larger breeds.
A dog’s sleeping patterns are nearly identical to a human’s. Like us, they go through three phases during NREM sleep and also experience REM sleep. However, a dog’s sleep cycle is a lot shorter than ours: while we go through an average of five cycles a night, a dog can go through 15-20 cycles.
All dogs dream, but puppies and senior dogs dream more frequently than adult dogs.
Dogs can be unpredictable if they’re woken suddenly. They may bite or nip purely as a reactive response to being startled, so it’s always better to let your sleeping dog lie. If you really have to rouse them, do it with a gentle voice – not a hand. But don’t wake them from a bad dream, as they may react badly.
One reason for your dog snoozing on their back, paws in the air may be because s/he feels safe and secure, showing total trust. There’s also a possibility that your dog is too hot, particularly in the summer. There’s less hair on their belly, so heat can leave their body more easily. Plus, as dogs sweat through their paws, in this position they’re catching a breeze.
A dog sleeping on its side also indicates they are feeling relaxed and comfortable. It’s another sign of trust, and a dog will often enter REM sleep and dream in this position.
Dogs curl up in a ball when sleeping to protect their organs — a holdover from their days in the wild, when they were vulnerable to predator attacks—but it is also a way to conserve heat.
Special Dogs
Rin Tin Tin, the famous German Shepherd, was rescued from a bombed-out dog kennel in France during World War I. After the war, he was brought back to the U.S., where he (and his offspring) starred in 27 movies. He was nominated for an Academy Award in 1929.
Three dogs survived the historical sinking of the Titanic in 1912: a Pekingese named Sun Yat Sen, a Pomeranian named Lady, and another unnamed Pomeranian. All three sailed in First Class cabins.
The Guinness Book of World Records names Bluey, an Australian cattle dog, as the oldest dog to ever live. Bluey lived to be 29 years 5 months old and lived from 1910 to 1939.
The town of Idyllwild, California elected their first mayor in 2012, Mayor Max. But Max wasn’t just any regular mayor, he’s a Golden Retriever! Although Mayor Max passed away in 2013, the town elected Mayor Max II in 2013, and Mayor Max III in 2022. Way to go, Mayor Max!
According to Guinness World Records, a Great Dane named Zeus was the world’s tallest male dog ever. Zeus was 3 feet, 5.18 inches tall. He could drink from the kitchen sink, and his family has to buy a larger vehicle to fit him better.
What about the shortest dog? Guinness World Records gives that title to Pearl the Chihuahua. She measures 3.59 inches tall.
Interesting Breeds
Dachshunds were originally bred to fight badgers. In fact, their name means “badger dog” in German!
Newfoundlands make great lifeguards because they have water-resistant coats and webbed feet. They can also swim for unusually long distances, even while pulling a would-be drowning victim to safety.
Dalmatian puppies are born completely white; they develop their spots as they get older.
Maltese dogs have hair instead of fur. This means that, although their hair falls out like a human’s does, they do not shed fur and dander. Thus, they are ideal pets for allergy sufferers.
The Labrador Retriever has been on the AKC’s top 10 most popular breeds list for longer than any other breed. It is originally from Newfoundland, descending from the St. John’s Water Dog.
It may stem from the black-faced mountain sheep common in Scotland, called “coollies.”
A Northern English dialectal term for coal is coaley, possibly referring to the breed’s black patches.
In Old Gaelic, collie was a rural description of anything useful, which Collie dogs assuredly are. Collies are still among the most popular herding dogs today!
Another potential Gaelic root, cuilein, means a puppy or cub.
The Scandinavian name Colle was often used to refer to any dog in Medieval English, as seen in Chaucer’s works.
Chow Chow and Shar-Pei are the only two dog breeds with fully black tongues. I couldn’t find any explanation for why this trait was bred into these dogs. According to one legend, the Chow Chow’s tongue turned blue while it was helping a monk paint the night sky.
The Australian Shepherd is not actually from Australia. In fact, they are an American breed.
A person who hunts with a Beagle is known as a “Beagler.” (Not to be confused with a “Beaglier” dog, which is a cross between a Beagle and a Cavalier spaniel!)
Basenjis don’t bark. Instead they yodel (called a “barroo”), whine, and occasionally scream as a means of communicating. Their barkless traits have earned them a nickname: “The African Barkless Dog.”
The Norwegian Lundehund is the only dog breed created for the job of puffin hunting.
Greyhounds can beat cheetahs in an extended race. While cheetahs can run twice as fast as Greyhounds, they can only maintain that 70 mph speed for about thirty seconds. A Greyhound can maintain a 35 mph speed for about seven miles. The cheetah may start out first, but the Greyhound would soon overtake them.
And then there are working dogs: sled dogs, herders, trackers, search and rescue specialists, drug (or other) sniffers at airports, hunters, racers….
Dog Miscellany
When your dog is carefully choosing the perfect place to do their business, they may be leaving a message for other dogs, finding a surface they prefer, looking for a safe spot, or simply prolonging their time outside. They may even prefer to poop in alignment with the Earth’s magnetic field!
When dogs kick backward after they go to the bathroom, it’s not to cover it up, but to mark their territory, using the scent glands in their feet.
Dogs share 99.9% of their DNA with wolves. The Alaskan Malamute and Siberian Husky may have the closest DNA to their wild cousins.
Like right-handed and left-handed humans, most dogs have a dominant paw. To figure out which one it is, note which paw your dog most often starts with when getting up and walking.
A study shows that dogs are among a small group of animals who show voluntary, unselfish kindness towards others without any reward.
Dogs are able to breathe out through their mouth and nose at the same time. Their noses can separate air for sniffing and air for breathing. A dog’s nostrils are also able to move air out of their lungs while simultaneously moving air in across their scent receptors!
More than half of U.S. presidents have had at least one dog during their time at the White House. And then there’s Calvin Coolidge, who had at least 12!
The term “man’s best friend” was coined for a hound dog named Old Drum. A neighbor shot him, and his owner took the neighbor to court and proceeded to give one of the finest speeches defending the relationship of humans and dogs. This speech is forever immortalized on a plaque in front of a hound statue, located in front of the court house in Warrensburg, Missouri. The speech is available online. If you want to know more, look up “Burden vs Hornsby Old Drum”.
So, while I searched broadly, being totally comprehensive wasn’t possible. There are always more things to learn about dogs. Enjoy exploring!
Bottom Line: Dogs are useful, complex, fascinating, and—dare I say decorative? There’s lots to appreciate about dogs, all through the year!
